I have read few books on 1971 war but none on 1965. India and Pakistan both claim that they won it but the truth lies closer to Indian claim. India had in its possession more territory than Pakistan and Tashkent declaration was more favorable to India than Pakistan. This is also claimed by many neutral writers and even by somewhat pro-Pakistan writer Farooq Bajwa in his book 'From Kutch to Tashkent'.
The Genesis
General Ayub Khan
became the President of Pakistan in 1958 after a military coup. He declared
martial law in the country. Bhutto became the foreign minister of Pakistan in
1962, he was only 34. Ayub Khan introduced a new constitution of ‘indirect
democracy’ in 1962. There was no provision of universal adult franchise. There were 80,000 strong electorates
handpicked by the regime. Fatima Jinnah, the sister of Muhammad Ali Jinnah,
gave a tough fight to Ayub Khan in January 1965 Presidential elections. She
secured 38, 691 votes out of 80,000 votes. Ayub Khan had to rig the elections
to win Presidency. In order to secure popular support which he lost in the
Presidential elections as people thronged in large numbers in Fatima Jinnah’s
rallies, Ayub Khan triggered 1965 war. He also thought that India was weakened
by the 1962 war, Shastri was not a great leader, Hindus have no stomach for fight, India was facing famine and
economic crisis and China would support Pakistan and perhaps Pakistan would not
get a better chance to shame India than in 1965.
USSR turned slightly
warm towards Pakistan between 1962 and 1965. USSR refrained from any criticism
of Pakistan in late 1962 in UNSC when Kashmir was being debated. US under Lyndon
Johnson (Nov 1963 onwards) was not happy with Pakistan getting cozy with China
and Lyndon Johnson warned Foreign Minister Bhutto in Nov 1963. Pakistan was
also not happy with US giving military aid to India during and after 1962 war.
Pakistan made a major shift in its foreign policy in April 1965 by making
friendly gestures to China and USSR. Ayub Khan visited China in March 1965 and
USSR in April 1965. He made an astonishing offer to USSR that if USSR agreed to
stop Vetoing in UNSC favouring Indian position then Pakistan would ask US to
dismantle its bases from Pakistan territory.
This softened the anti-Pakistan stance of USSR. But US did not like it
and it cancelled the proposed visit of Ayub Khan to US in late April 1965. The
US-Pakistan relations stretched to the maximum extent by then.
Fighting in Kutch
In January 1965 tension
escalated between India and Pakistan over Kanjarkot fort (an abandoned fort in
Rann of Kutch) when Indian Special Reserve Police found new track formed by
heavy vehicles in the region that was south of the border as claimed by India.
Pakistan claimed it as its own. Both sides started aggressive patrolling and a
minor border skirmish broke out in April 1965. In May British PM Harold Wilson offered to negotiate. The
ceasefire commenced on 1st July 1965 and both sides agreed to
retreat to 1st Jan 1965 position. The dispute was referred to a 3
member arbitration panel whose members were nominated by India and Pakistan
(one member each) and the third member was by UN Secretary General. It gave its
award in 1968 and was a great
victory for Pakistan as they defeated Indian forces in quick succession in
Kutch region. Ayub Khan said that “Hindu has no stomach for a fight” and this
belief became a cornerstone of all further Pakistan military decisions. US also
objected to Pakistan use of US weapons against India as these weapons were not
supposed to be used against any country in offensive operations. Pakistan
also thought that the qualitative edge that it enjoyed against India in terms of
weapons etc would even out once Indian modernization of military completes by
late 1960s so 1965 was the best time to humiliate India militarily.
Operation Gibraltar
It was a daring plan
to send thousands of Pakistani soldiers and paramilitaries from Azad Kashmir
into Indian Kashmir disguised as Kashmiri guerillas, to engage Indian forces in
Indian Kashmir as well as leading a popular civilian revolt against Indian
rule. It was the first part followed by Operation Grand Slam. Both plans were
prepared by General Akhtar Malik.
The Gibraltar forces
were divided into six groups – Babur, Ghazanavi, Salahuddin, Khalid, Qasim and
Tariq. The total strength was about 5 to 7 thousand troops. All the Gibraltar
troops were to operate in civilian dress. Bhutto was the key person behind this
idea.On 5th
August a large number of Pakistan forces infiltrated in India but were detected
by India. India objected to U Thant Secretary General of UN about it and even
the chief of UN Military Observer Group on India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP)
confirmed Indian position to the Secretary General. On 8th August
Voice of Kashmir radio station run from inside Kashmir declared the formation
of the Revolutionary Council of Kashmir and called for the liberation war. But
the majority of Kashmiris did not support the infiltrators.
India captured some Gibraltar force members and they disclosed the entire
plan of Pakistan on All India Radio. Thus the operation ended in a great
disaster.
India captured 3
Pakistani posts north of Kargil on 16th August. India attacked three Pakistan posts across
the LOC in the Tithwal region (Uri-Poonch bulge) on 21st August.
India captured Haji Pir Pass on 28th August. It was a strategic pass
through which most of the provisions had to pass for Pakistan forces in the
valley. The Gibraltar forces were now isolated in Kashmir.
Operation Grand Slam
It was the code name
given to the plan for an armored thrust by 12 Division against Indian forces
across the ‘cease fire line’ at Akhnur was a critical supply line for Indian
forces from India to Srinagar. Ayub Khan gave green light to Operation Grand
Slam on 29th August; time was running out for Pakistan as Gibraltar
forces were getting decimated by India so it was important to execute Grand
Slam as soon as possible. It was launched on 1st
Sept 0330 hrs. It was supported by massive artillery. It was launched in the
Chhamb sector. India was caught by surprise. Indians withdrew to prevent
Pakistan from crossing the Tawi River. By noon Pakistan had surrounded the
Chhamb sector.
India launched
airstrikes at 1700 hrs to relieve pressure and by sunset India has destroyed 13
Pakistan tanks and many armored vehicles and lost two Indian vampires. Pakistan
has Paton tanks. India had centurions but they could not be sent because they
were heavy and Akhnur bridge could not hold that weight.
UNMOGIP had warned
India about Pakistan build up in Chhamb sector but India did not pay any
attention. China declared support for Pakistan action on 4th Sept
1965. The Foreign Minister of China visited Pakistan on 4th Sept.
UNSC asked Pakistan and India to order ceasefire and return to cease fire line
as existed before but both countries refused. On 2nd Sept Chhamb was
taken. Pakistan had captured all area west of Tawi river. Indians retreated to
defend Akhnoor and abandoned Chhamb.
On 2nd Sept
General Musa asked Major General Yahya Khan to take command of Operation
Grandslam from Major General Akhtar Malik. No concrete reasons given or may be
because Gibraltar and Grandslam did not produce the expected results. This
changed the course of the war. Akhtar Malik was awarded Pakistan’s second
highest gallantry award. He was Ahmadiya.
Ayub Khan was
concerned with India fighting as all out war. His main aim was to highlight
Kashmir issue and pressurize India to hold plebiscite on it. He asked his men to consolidate the gains of
Grandslam. On 5th Sept Jaurian
town was taken by Pakistan. Pakistan was within 4 miles of Akhnur. India
crossed the Punjab border on 6th Sept to relieve the pressure on
Akhnur. Pakistan reluctance to capture Akhnur gave India a much needed space.
Pakistan was supposed to capture Akhnur by 2nd Sept but they did not
do it even by 5th Sept.
India had Centurion
and Sherman tanks about 1400 in number while Pakistan had 900 tanks including
360 Paton tanks. Paton tanks had 90 mm gun, range of 1800 yards and equipped
with infra red gun sight so that it can fight in night as well. While Indian
tanks had 84 mm gun, range of 1200 yards and can not fight in night. Indian Air
Force had an advantage of 210 Planes to 97 of Pakistan.
Operation Riddle
Indian Army Chief was
General J N Choudhury and Lt. General Harbaksh Singh was GOC Western Command.
Operation Riddle was the codename of the plan finalized by Lt. General Harbaksh
Singh to assault Lahore. Lt. General Joginder Singh Dhillon was to lead the
assault on Lahore. It was to be a three prong attack. 15th Infantry Division led by
Major General N. Prasad was to advance along the Amritsar-Lahore route, 7th
Infantry Division led by Major General S K Sibal was to move on the
Harike-Khalra-Barki road and 4 Mountain Division led by Major General Gurbaksh
Singh to enter along Khem Karan – Kasur route.
Operation began on 0330 hrs on 6th Sept. Pakistan was
taken by complete surprise but 3 Baluch and PAF slowed down the advance of 15th
Infantry Division under Prasad. General Prasad was sacked from his command as
he failed to take advantage of the surprise element. Pakistan counter offensive
caused heavy damage to Indians on 7th Sept. Pakistan commanders
showed exemplary leadership compared to Indians. The attack by 15th
Infantry Division was foiled in this region.
7 Infantry Division
led by Major General S K Sibal crossed border on 6th Sept and
captured Barki village amidst great fighting on 10th Sept. Major
Aziz Bhatii of Pakistan was awarded highest gallantry award posthumously. 7
Infantry Division could not make any further gain.
Khem Karan – Kasur
road was southernmost route of India’s three pronged assault on Lahore. Kasur
(6 miles deep in Pakistan) and Khem Karan (1 mile in India) are crucial points.
4 Mountain Division failed in its objective and proved to be the weakest link.
It retreated to Indian border on 8th Sept after suffering heavy
causalities losing almost half of its fighting capability.
Operation Riddle
achieved its objective of halting Pakistan’s capture of Akhnur but failed in
capturing Lahore. Indian Artillery proved to be highly ineffective compared to
Pakistan’s. Pakistan launched counter offensive Operation Mailed Fist.
Operation Mailed Fist
It was launched in
Khem Karan front as it was the weakest link of India. 4 Mountain Division had
already suffered heavy losses in this front. It was to be led by famous 1
Armored Division. 4 Mountain Division’s morale was very low and was suffering
from desertions. Operation Mailed Fist
had to be a kind of Blitzkrieg. The Operation started at 0430 hrs on 8th
Sept. by 1100 hrs Pakistan had captured Khem Karan. The town was abandoned by
Indian forces. Pakistan division penetrated 8 miles deep but retreated back to
Khem Karan for refueling and also it did not have infantry support. This was a
major blunder as India got 1 crucial day to prepare the defenses. Indian 2nd Independent Armored
Brigade reached the border on 9th Sept at 0400 hrs. It was placed
under the command of 4 Mountain Division. Operation Mailed Fist resumed on 9th
Morning but now the 18 Rajputana Rifles gave a tough fight as Asal Uttar and
Pakistan 6 Lancers had to retreat.
Pakistan made the
third and final push on 10th Sept morning. India used the sugarcane field to hide her
tanks and breached the Rohi Nala. The Paton tanks were bogged down in the marsh
and about 70 Pakistan tanks were destroyed by India 6 mm recoilless guns
mounted on Jeeps. Grenadier Havildar Abdul Hamid was awarded PVC for destroying
3 Pakistan tanks by his 6 mm recoilless gun. Pakistan did not know that Asal
Uttar was head quarter of 4 Mountain Division. 4 Mountain Division saved India
and by 11th Sept Operation Mailed Fist decisively failed.
UN
asked for ceasefire on 6th Sept, both sides refused. US applied
total embargo on military aid and sales to India and Pakistan on 8th
Sept. Britain was harsher on India. It stopped all military aid to India wef 6th
Sept. Britain said CENTO did not
apply within commonwealth. US did not help Pakistan and Pakistan took it as a
great betrayal. Pakistan had just 3 to 4 weeks of fighting capability. China
was not even a member of UN and Taiwan was occupying China seat in UNSC (till
25th Oct 1971). Any direct assistance from China would have
irrevocably ruptured US-Pakistan relations. China declared on 7th
Sept that Indian attack was a naked aggression. China gave assurance to
Pakistan that if India attacked East Pakistan then China would attack India in
Bengal and northern border. Chinese forces were put on high alert on Sikkim
border and China gave an ultimatum to India. Indonesia, Iran and Turkey also
supported Pakistan. Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Iraq gave diplomatic support to
Pakistan. Ethiopia and Yugoslavia had supported India
Operation Nepal
This was the operation
of assaulting Sialkot. 1 Armored Division was India’s main armored strike
force. It was led by Major General Rajinder Singh ‘Sparrow’. Operation objective was to draw into battle
and destroy Pakistan armour. Operation commenced at 2300 hrs on 7th
Sept.
Indian Army reached
within 5 miles of Sialkot on 8th Sept. Brigadier Ismail, GOC 15
Division was relieved of his command at 0660 hrs because of poor defense and
replaced by Major General Tikka Khan. The famous Indian 1 Armored Division was
not able to make any progress because of downpour or assault by PAF and the
communication broke down between Infantry and Armour. Indians halted their
assault to see the result of the great battle of Asal Uttar.
India decisively won
the battle on 10th Sept and on 11th Sept 1 Armored
Division of India advanced on two fronts, Charwa-Chawinda and Kaloi-Pogowal
towards Phillora town. Despite fierce Pakistani resistance Indians managed to
capture the town at 1530 hrs on 11 Sept. India’s 14 Infantry Division failed to
capture Zafarwal but it captured Bhagowal town by 0600 hrs on 13th
Sept.
1 Armored Division
fought fierce battle with Pakistan forces involving armour, artillery and
infantry between 1200 and 1800 hrs on 14th Sept but failed to
conquer Chawinda town. PAF played a crucial role in defense of Chawinda town. 6
Armored Division was defending Chawinda town. The Battle of Chawinda is
considered biggest tank battle after WW 1 and resulted in Indian defeat.
India’s formidable 1 Armored Division failed to make any impact beyond Chawinda
just like Pakistan’s 1 Armored Division in case of Asal Uttar. India lost close
to 100 tanks while Pakistan about 70. India still held much of Pakistan
territory in Sialkot region even after its failure to capture Chawinda town.
Eastern Front
No action of this
front. Eastern command was under General Sam Manekshaw. Pakistan had 1 division while India had 11
divisions. So Pakistan did not take any chance. There were occasional air raids
in this sector.
Air and Naval War
On the night of 7/8
Sept two Pakistani destroyers bombarded the Indian post of Dwarka, the town
sacred to Hindus. Indian Navy was caught napping. India did not retaliate.
Pakistan had 17
Squadrons including the most advanced F-104 Starfighter (12 in number) which
can fly at Mach 2 (twice the speed of sound). It was supplied to Pakistan by US
in 1961 despite of Indian objections. In numbers India had a decisive
superiority.
PAF raided IAF bases
on 6th Sept at Pathankot, Adampur and Halwara from Sargodha and Peshawar
bases and destroyed many Indian aircraft on ground. The objective was to
destroy as many Indian planes as possible to minimize Indian numerical
superiority. IAF retaliated but Pakistan
was well prepared and India suffered losses.
Pressure for Cease fire
Pakistan situation was
very desperate because of poor industrial base and US arms embargo. China on 16th
Sept gave ultimatum of three days until 19th sept to India to
dismantle the border installations on Indo-China border, stop the intrusions
and undertake not to carry out any more raids across the border. Shastri
offered a joint Indo-China commission to examine the truth of the accusations.
Because of Chinese pro-Pakistan stance USSR continued supply of weapons to
India during the war.
Turkey had given
military assistance to Pakistan which included F-86 fighter jets, anti-tank
guided missiles, mortar shells, ammunitions etc.
Bhutto was not keen on
ceasefire and wanted Indian forces out of Kashmir as a pre condition for a
ceasefire while Ayub Khan did not want to antagonize US. It was Bhutto who was
behind the war though Ayub Khan cannot hide behind this excuse. Ayub Khan
wanted a face saving device in form of a UNSC resolution on Kashmir issue.
Ayub Khan flew to
China in complete secrecy on 20th Sept and met Zhou En Lai. Zhou
advised him to prepare for a long drawn war against India and promised Chinese
support. Pakistan was not prepared for a long drawn war. China was ready to
support Pakistan on whatever decision Pakistan was going to take.
UNSC passed a resolution 211 on
Kashmir under Article 40 on 20th Sept. It demanded that ceasefire
should take effect on 22nd Sept 1965 at 0700 hrs GMT. Both countries
should withdraw their personnel to the positions held by them before 5th
August 1965. UNSC also said that it is convinced that ceasefire is essential as
first step towards a peaceful settlement of outstanding differences between two
countries over Kashmir. There were no assurances of any binding arbitration
over Kashmir.
India was ready to
accept resolution as it was wary of Chinese ultimatum. Ayub blamed India for
exaggerating Chinese threat. India accepted the UNSC Resolution on 22nd
Sept. Bhutto travelled to UN on 21st Sept. After the Indian
acceptance of UNSC Resolution, Ayub Khan directed Bhutto to do the same. Bhutto
made an emotional speech on 22nd Sept in UN and agreed to UNSC
Resolution. He also threatened to leave UN if UN failed to resolve the issue
this time, this threat was quickly and firmly denied by Pakistan. Ayub Khan
addressed the nation on TV. Millions of people heard him with surprise and
anger, many in the Armed forces wept as he spoke. The war was effectively over
by 23rd Sept. Pakistan was not in a position to win the war and for
India it would have been a very expensive victory.
Firing had stopped but
both the countries remained with the occupation of the captured territory. USSR
offered to host a summit between India and Pakistan at Tashkent after the
ceasefire. It was accepted by India on 22nd Sept but resisted by
Pakistan.
As per US evaluation
India won the war but her performance was not upto the mark. India lost 300
tanks while Pakistan 250. India had gained more territory and suffered less
proportionate losses.
Britain and US probed
India to give some concessions to Pakistan over Kashmir but Shastri confidently
refused. India was now seen as more confident and proud of its ability to stand
up to China and Pakistan at the same time.
Pakistan accepted to
participate in the Tashkent summit on 8th Dec. Ayub Khan went to
address UN in Dec (13th) and met US president on 14th and
15th Dec. Ayub Khan in his address in UN GA criticized India’s
position on Kashmir which caused Indian walkout. In his meeting with Ayub Khan,
US President Johnson warned Ayub Khan that Bhutto was a dangerous man. US also
clarified that It was not in any position to pressurize India on Kashmir and it
was better for Pakistan to attend Tashkent summit with open mind. US did not
give any assurance to Pakistan. US special relationship with Pakistan was over
for a while. Pakistan senior ministers blamed Bhutto for the entire mess and
cooling of relations with US. Ayub Khan had said that Pakistan cannot be
sacrificed for the sake of Kashmir and Bhutto was blamed for risking Pakistan
for Kashmir.
Tashkent Summit
Indian and Pakistan
delegations arrived at Tashkent on 3rd Dec. USSR PM Alexei Kosygin personally
hosted the summit. India’s main
conditions were that Pakistan should accept the Cease fire line as the international
border in Kashmir, a no-war pact and Pakistan should not repeat Gibraltar kind
of adventure. India also was not ready for any concession on Kashmir. Pakistan
wanted resolution of Kashmir dispute either by agreement or plebiscite. Ayub Khan told Kosygin that he would not shake
hands with Shastri the next day as the photo would have a negative effect in
Pakistan. Kosygin reacted with anger to this and said that Shastri deserved
respect as head of state. Ayub Khan backed down.
Ayub Khan, Shastri and
Kosygin made speeches on 4th January. Shastri speech was received
with applause by all present except Bhutto who had to be nudged by Ayub Khan to
join in. UNSC Resolution 211
had called for the ceasefire and withdrawal of forces to 5th August
state. This would mean that India had to give up Hazi Pir Pass and other areas.
Indian PM Shastri discussed this with Foreign Minister Swaran Singh and Defence
Minister Y B Chavan who were with him for the talks. They agreed to give up these
territories for peace sake. On 5th January India gave first concession.
It agreed to give up gains in Kashmir. Soviet found Ayub as decent while Bhutto
as obstructive. Ayub Khan pleaded Shastri in Urdu on 7th Jan “Kashmir ke mamle main kuch aisa kar dijiye
ki main apne mulk main munh dikhane ke kabil rahoon”. Shastri replied “Sadar Sahib, Main bahut maafi chahta hoon ki
main is mamle main apki koi khidmat nahin kar sakta”.
China threatened India
on 8th Jan that it would strike back resolutely against aggressive
Indian behavior on border. On 9th Kosygin tried to persuade Shastri
to make some more concession on Kashmir. Shastri said that he would rather
resign and give up politics then compromise Indian position. Kosygin backtracked.
Tashkent declaration
was signed on 10th Jan 1966. The main points were:
- · India and Pakistan would settle their disputes through peaceful means.
- · Armed forces would withdraw to 5 August position by 24th Feb 1966.
Declaration was a
major diplomatic triumph for India. Kashmir issue was not discussed. Bhutto
refused to applaud the signing ceremony. On 10th/11th night after
the banquet Shastri died of heart attack in his sleep. He had survived two
heart attacks before. Shastri was short in physical stature but stood up to the
much larger size of Ayub. At the airport, after a gentle gesture from Kosygin,
Ayub assisted Kosygin in lifting Shastri’s coffin on to the aeroplane going
back to India.
There were angry student
protests against the Tashkent declaration. Pakistan information ministry had
earlier misled the people that Pakistan had won the war.
British response to
the Indian attack on Lahore had caused the British to be viewed by India as a ‘Semi-Hostile
Nation’. India was disappointed by lack of international support and even the
USSR did not condemn Pakistan infiltration of August 1965. China threat on 16th
Sept to India had led to both USSR and USA warnings to China but Britain had remained
muted.
Ayub Khan took the
gamble that Grandslam and Gibraltar won’t trigger all out war with India. He
also misjudged Indian Army and Shastri. Both countries
refrained from bombing civilian targets and both countries observed Geneva Convention.
US thinking
Robert Komer, the
National Security Adviser to Lyndon Johnson, wrote in his account that when
Johnson became President of US after the assassination of JFK, he asked to
explain JFK’s pro India stance. He said he liked Ayub and Indians were the
worst people to deal with he had ever seen. Komer replied that Pakistan are Aryans and their forefathers
were Aryan invaders of India, Hindu philosophy is very antithetical to our way
of thinking and Mohammedism is much closer to western thought but India has 6
times more people than Pakistan and can act as counterweight to communist
China.
Its a great book and offers almost a neutral assessment of the war though the tinge of pro-Pakistan bias exists throughout the book.
Highly Recommended (9/10)
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